There are numerous individual operations, or processing steps, performed, in a strictly followed sequence, on a silicon wafer in the course of manufacturing a complex integrated circuit (IC). Each such operation must be precisely controlled in order to assure that the entire fabrication process yields integrated circuits displaying the required electrical characteristics.
Frequently, failure of an individual operation is detected only after the completion of the entire, very expensive, process of IC fabrication. Due to the very high cost of advanced IC fabrication processes, such failures result in the severe financial losses to the integrated circuit manufacturer. Therefore detection of errors in the manufacturing process, immediately after their occurrence, could prevent the unnecessary continuation of the fabrication of devices which are destined to malfunction, and hence, could substantially reduce the financial losses resulting from such errors.
Process monitoring in semiconductor device manufacturing relies upon the examination of the changes which occur in certain physical and/or chemical properties of the silicon wafer upon which the semiconductor devices are fabricated. These changes may occur following the various processing steps to which the silicon wafer is subjected and are reflected by changes in the electrical properties of the wafer. Therefore, by monitoring selected electrical properties of the silicon wafer in the course of IC fabrication, an effective control over the manufacturing process can be accomplished.
Not all of the electrical characteristics of a completed integrated circuit can be predicted based on the measurements performed on a partially processed wafer. Most of the characteristics however, can be predicted directly or indirectly based on the investigation of the condition of the surface of the silicon wafer (substrate) in the course of IC manufacture. The electrical condition of the silicon surface is very sensitive to the outcome of the individual processing steps that are applied during IC manufacturing. Hence, the measurement of the electrical properties of the substrate surface can be an effective tool by which the monitoring of the outcome of the individual processing steps can be accomplished.
The determination of the electrical characteristics of the wafer surface typically requires physical contact with the wafer surface, or the placement of a contactless probe over a stationary wafer. In the latter case an optical signal or a high electric field is used to disturb equilibrium distribution of the electrons in the surface and near-surface region of semiconductor. Typically, the degree of departure from equilibrium is driven by variations of one or more electrical characteristics of the surface region, the near-surface region, and the bulk of the semiconductor. To obtain a more complete picture of the entire surface of the wafer, several measurements at various points on the surface can be made. Such a procedure, known as “mapping” performs a measurement at each location before the measuring device moves on to the next location. The substrate, in this procedure, typically does not remain in continuous motion, so consequently the applicability of such a method for use in real-time in-line process monitoring is limited.